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Institut
- Fachbereich 7 (73) (entfernen)
Agricultural pesticides, especially insecticides, are an integral part of modern farming. However, these may often leave their target ecosystems and cause adverse effects in non- target, especially freshwater ecosystems, leading to their deterioration. In this thesis, the focus will be on Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) that can in many ways cause disruption of the endocrine system of invertebrates. Freshwater invertebrates play important ecological, economic and medical roles, and disruption of their endocrine systems may be crucial, considering the important role hormones play in the developmental and reproductive processes in organisms. Although Endocrine Disruption Chemicals (EDCs) can affect moulting, behaviour, morphology, sexual maturity, time to first brood, egg development time, brood size (fecundity), and sex determination in invertebrates, there is currently no agreement upon how to characterize and assess endocrine disruption (ED). Current traditional ecotoxicity tests for Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) show limitations on generating data at the population level that may be relevant for the assessment of EDCs, which effects may be sublethal, latent and persist for several generations of species (transgenerational).
It is therefore the primary objective of this thesis to use a test method to investigate adverse effects of EDCs on endpoints concerning development and reproduction in freshwater invertebrates. The full life-cycle test over two generations that includes all sensitive life stages of C. riparius (a sexual reproductive organism) allows an assessment of its reproduction and should be suitable for the investigation of long-term toxicity of EDCs in freshwater invertebrates. C. riparius is appropriate for this purpose because of its short life cycle that enables the assessment of functional endpoints of the organism over several generations. Moreover, the chironomid life cycle consists of a complete metamorphosis controlled by a well-known endocrine mechanism and the endocrine system of insects has been most investigated in great detail among invertebrates. Hence, the full life-cycle test with C. riparius provides an approach to assess functional endpoints (e.g. reproduction, sex ratio) that are population-relevant as a useful amendment to the ERA of EDCs. In the laboratory, C. riparius was exposed to environmentally-relevant concentrations of the selected IGRs in either spiked water or spiked sediment scenario over two subsequent generations.
The results reported in this thesis revealed significant effects of the IGRs on the development and the reproduction of C. riparius with the second (F1) generation showing greater sensitivity. These findings indicated for the first time the suitability of multigenerational testing for various groups of EDCs and strongly suggested considering the full life-cycle of C. riparius as an appropriate test method for a better assessment of EDCs in the freshwater environment. In conclusion, this thesis helps to detect additional information that can be extrapolated at population level and, thus, might contribute to better protection of freshwater ecosystems against the risks of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs.) It may furthermore contribute to changes in the ERA process that are necessary for a real implementation of the new European chemical legislation, REACH (Registration, Evaluation Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals). Finally, significant interactions between temperature, chemical exposure and generation were reported for the first time and, may help predict impacts that may occur in the future, in the field, under predicted climate change scenarios.
The global problematic issue of the olive oil industry is in its generation of large amounts of olive mill wastewater (OMW). The direct discharge of OMW to the soil is very common which presents environmental problems for olive oil producing countries. Both, positive as well as negative effects on soil have been found in earlier studies. Therefore, the current study hypothesized that whether beneficial effects or negative effects dominate depends on the prevailing conditions before and after OMW discharge to soil. As such, a better understanding of the OMW-soil interaction mechanisms becomes essential for sustainable safe disposal of OMW on soil and sustainable soil quality.
A field experiment was carried out in an olive orchard in Palestine, over a period of 24 months, in which the OMW was applied to the soil as a single application of 14 L m-2 under four different environmental conditions: in winter (WI), spring (SP), and summer with and without irrigation (SUmoist and SUdry). The current study investigated the effects of seasonal conditions on the olive mill wastewater (OMW) soil interaction in the short-term and the long-term. The degree and persistence of soil salinization, acidification, accumulation of phenolic compounds and soil water repellency were investigated as a function of soil depth and time elapsed after the OMW application. Moreover, the OMW impacts on soil organic matter SOM quality and quantity, total organic carbon (SOC), water-extractable soil organic carbon (DOC), as well as specific ultraviolet absorbance analysis (SUVA254) were also investigated for each seasonal application in order to assess the degree of OMW-OM decomposition or accumulation in soil, and therefore, the persisting effects of OMW disposal to soil.
The results of the current study demonstrate that the degree and persistence of relevant effects due to OMW application on soil varied significantly between the different seasonal OMW applications both in the short-term and the long-term. The negative effects of the potentially hazardous OMW residuals in the soil were highly dependent on the dominant transport mechanisms and transformation mechanisms, triggered by the ambient soil moisture and temperature which either intensified or diminished negative effects of OMW in the soil during and after the application season. The negative effects of OMW disposal to the soil decreased by increasing the retention time of OMW in soil under conditions favoring biological activity. The moderate conditions of soil moisture and temperature allowed for a considerable amount of applied OMW to be biologically degraded, while the prolonged application time under dry conditions and high temperature resulted in a less degradable organic fraction of the OMW, causing the OMW constituents to accumulate and polymerize without being degraded. Further, the rainfall during winter season diminished negative effects of OMW in the soil; therefore, the risk of groundwater contamination by non-degraded constituents of OMW can be highly probable during the winter season.
Statistical eco(-toxico)logy
(2017)
Freshwaters are of immense importance for human well-being.
Nevertheless, they are currently facing unprecedented levels of threat from habitat loss and degradation, overexploitation, invasive species and
pollution.
To prevent risks to aquatic ecosystems, chemical substances, like agricultural pesticides, have to pass environmental risk assessment (ERA) before entering the market.
Concurrently, large-scale environmental monitoring is used for surveillance of biological and chemical conditions in freshwaters.
This thesis examines statistical methods currently used in ERA.
Moreover, it presents a national-scale compilation of chemical monitoring data, an analysis of drivers and dynamics of chemical pollution in streams and, provides a large-scale risk assessment by combination with results from ERA.
Additionally, software tools have been developed to integrate different datasets used in ERA.
The thesis starts with a brief introduction to ERA and environmental monitoring and gives an overview of the objectives of the thesis.
Chapter 2 addresses experimental setups and their statistical analyses using simulations.
The results show that current designs exhibit unacceptably low statistical power, that statistical methods chosen to fit the type of data provide higher power and that statistical practices in ERA need to be revised.
In chapter 3 we compiled all available pesticide monitoring data from Germany.
Hereby, we focused on small streams, similar to those considered in ERA and used threshold concentrations derived during ERA for a large-scale assessment of threats to freshwaters from pesticides.
This compilation resulted in the most comprehensive dataset on pesticide exposure currently available for Germany.
Using state-of-the-art statistical techniques, that explicitly take the limits of quantification into account, we demonstrate that 25% of small streams are at threat from pesticides.
In particular neonicotinoid pesticides are responsible for these threats.
These are associated with agricultural intensity and can be detected even at low levels of agricultural use.
Moreover, our results indicated that current monitoring underestimates pesticide risks, because of a sampling decoupled from precipitation events.
Additionally, we provide a first large-scale study of annual pesticide exposure dynamics.
Chapters 4 and 5 describe software solutions to simplify and accelerate the integration of data from ERA, environmental monitoring and ecotoxicology that is indispensable for the development of landscape-level risk assessment.
Overall, this thesis contributes to the emerging discipline of statistical ecotoxicology and shows that pesticides pose a large-scale threat to small streams.
Environmental monitoring can provide a post-authorisation feedback to ERA.
However, to protect freshwater ecosystems ERA and environmental monitoring need to be further refined and we provide software solutions to utilise existing data for this purpose.
The use of agricultural plastic covers has become common practice for its agronomic benefits such as improving yields and crop quality, managing harvest times better, and increasing pesticide and water use efficiency. However, plastic covers are suspected of partially breaking down into smaller debris and thereby contributing to soil pollution with microplastics. A better understanding of the sources and fate of plastic debris in terrestrial systems has so far been hindered by the lack of adequate analytical techniques for the mass-based and polymer-selective quantification of plastic debris in soil. The aim of this dissertation was thus to assess, develop, and validate thermoanalytical methods for the mass-based quantification of relevant polymers in and around agricultural fields previously covered with fleeces, perforated foils, and plastic mulches. Thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry (TGA/MS) enabled direct plastic analyses of 50 mg of soil without any sample preparation. With polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as a preliminary model, the method limit of detection (LOD) was 0.7 g kg−1. But the missing chromatographic separation complicated the quantification of polymer mixtures. Therefore, a pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) method was developed that additionally exploited the selective solubility of polymers in specific solvents prior to analysis. By dissolving polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) in a mixture of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene and p-xylene after density separation, up to 50 g soil became amenable to routine plastic analysis. Method LODs were 0.7–3.3 mg kg−1, and the recovery of 20 mg kg−1 PE, PP, and PS from a reference loamy sand was 86–105%. In the reference silty clay, however, poor PS recoveries, potentially induced by the additional separation step, suggested a qualitative evaluation of PS. Yet, the new solvent-based Py-GC/MS method enabled a first exploratory screening of plastic-covered soil. It revealed PE, PP, and PS contents above LOD in six of eight fields (6% of all samples). In three fields, PE levels of 3–35 mg kg−1 were associated with the use of 40 μm thin perforated foils. By contrast, 50 μm PE films were not shown to induce plastic levels above LOD. PP and PS contents of 5–19 mg kg−1 were restricted to single observations in four fields and potentially originated from littering. The results suggest that the short-term use of thicker and more durable plastic covers should be preferred to limit plastic emissions and accumulation in soil. By providing mass-based information on the distribution of the three most common plastics in agricultural soil, this work may facilitate comparisons with modeling and effect data and thus contribute to a better risk assessment and regulation of plastics. However, the fate of plastic debris in the terrestrial environment remains incompletely understood and needs to be scrutinized in future, more systematic research. This should include the study of aging processes, the interaction of plastics with other organic and inorganic compounds, and the environmental impact of biodegradable plastics and nanoplastics.
Global crop production increased substantially in recent decades due to agricultural intensification and expansion and today agricultural areas occupy about 38% of Earth’s terrestrial surface - the largest use of land on the planet. However, current high-intensity agricultural practices fostered in the context of the Green Revolution led to serious consequences for the global environment. Pesticides, in particular, are highly biologically active substances that can threaten the ecological integrity of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Although the global pesticide use increases steadily, our field-data based knowledge regarding exposure of non-target ecosystems such as surface waters is very restricted. Available studies have by now been limited to spatially restricted geographical areas or had rather specific objectives rendering the extrapolation to larger spatial scales questionable.
Consequently, this thesis evaluated based on four scientific publications the exposure, effects, and regulatory implications of particularly toxic insecticides` concentrations detected in global agricultural surface waters. FOCUS exposure modelling was used to characterise the highly specific insecticide exposure patterns and to analyse the resulting implications for both monitoring and risk assessment (publication I). Based on more than 200,000 scientific database entries, 838 peer-reviewed studies finally included, and more than 2,500 sites in 73 countries, the risks of agricultural insecticides to global surface waters were analysed by means of a comprehensive meta-analysis (publication II). This meta-analysis evaluated whether insecticide field concentrations exceed legally accepted regulatory threshold levels (RTLs) derived from official EU and US pesticide registration documents and, amongst others, how risks depend on insecticide development over time and stringency of environmental regulation. In addition, an in-depth analysis of the current EU pesticide regulations provided insights into the level of protection and field relevance of highly elaborated environmental regulatory risk assessment schemes (publications III and IV).
The results of this thesis show that insecticide surface water exposure is characterized by infrequent and highly transient concentration peaks of high ecotoxicological relevance. We thus argue in publication I that sampling based on regular intervals is inadequate for the detection of insecticide surface water concentrations and that traditional risk assessment concepts based on all insecticide concentrations including non-detects lead to severely biased results and critical underestimations of risks. Based on these considerations, publication II demonstrates that out of 11,300 measured insecticide concentrations (MICs; i.e., those actually detected and quantified), 52.4% (5,915 cases; 68.5%) exceeded the RTL for either water (RTLSW) or sediments. This indicates a substantial risk for the biological integrity of global water resources as additional analyses on pesticide effects in the field clearly evidence that the regional aquatic biodiversity is reduced by approximately 30% at pesticide concentrations equalling the RTLs. In addition, publication II shows that there is a complete lack of scientific monitoring data for ~90% of global cropland and that both the actual insecticide contamination of surface waters and the resulting ecological risks are most likely even greater due to, for example, inadequate sampling methods employed in the studies and the common occurrence of pesticide mixtures. A linear model analysis identified that RTLSW exceedances depend on the catchment size, sampling regime, sampling date, insecticide substance class, and stringency of countries` environmental regulations, as well as on the interactions of these factors. Importantly, the risks are significantly higher for newer-generation insecticides (i.e., pyrethroids) and are high even in countries with stringent environmental regulations. Regarding the latter, an analysis of the EU pesticide regulations revealed critical deficiencies and the lack of protectiveness and field-relevance for current presumed highly elaborated FOCUS exposure assessment (publication IV) and overall risk assessment schemes (publication III). Based on these findings, essential risk assessment amendments are proposed.
In essence, this thesis analyses the agriculture–environment linkages for pesticides at the global scale and it thereby contributes to a new research frontier in global ecotoxicology. The overall findings substantiate that agricultural insecticides are potential key drivers for the global freshwater biodiversity crisis and that the current regulatory risk assessment approaches for highly toxic anthropogenic chemicals fail to protect the global environment. This thesis provides an integrated view on the environmental side effects of global high-intensity agriculture and alerts that beside worldwide improvements to current pesticide regulations and agricultural pesticide application practices, the fundamental reformation of conventional agricultural systems is urgently needed to meet the twin challenges of providing sufficient food for a growing human population without destroying the ecological integrity of global ecosystems essential to human existence.
Aquatic macrophytes can contribute to the retention of organic contaminants in streams, whereas knowledge on the dynamics and the interaction of the determining processes is very limited. The objective of the present study was thus to assess how aquatic macrophytes influence the distribution and the fate of organic contaminants in small vegetated streams. In a first study that was performed in vegetated stream mesocosms, the peak reductions of five compounds were significantly higher in four vegetated stream mesocosms compared to a stream mesocosm without vegetation. Compound specific sorption to macrophytes was determined, the mass retention in the vegetated streams, however, did not explain the relationship between the mitigation of contaminant peaks and macrophyte coverage. A subsequent mesocosm study revealed that the mitigation of peak concentrations in the stream mesocosms was governed by two fundamentally different processes: dispersion and sorption. Again, the reductions of the peak concentrations of three different compounds were in the same order of magnitude in a sparsely and a densely vegetated stream mesocosm, respectively, but higher compared to an unvegetated stream mesocosm. The mitigation of the peak reduction in the sparsely vegetated stream mesocosm was found to be fostered by longitudinal dispersion as a result of the spatial distribution of the macrophytes in the aqueous phase. The peak reduction attributable to longitudinal dispersion was, however, reduced in the densely vegetated stream mesocosm, which was compensated by compound-specific but time-limited and reversible sorption to macrophytes. The observations on the reversibility of sorption processes were subsequently confirmed by laboratory experiments. The experiments revealed that sorption to macrophytes lead to compound specific elimination from the aqueous phase during the presence of transient contaminant peaks in streams. After all, these sorption processes were found to be fully reversible, which results in the release of the primarily adsorbed compounds, once the concentrations in the aqueous phase starts to decrease. Nevertheless, the results of the present thesis demonstrate that the processes governing the mitigation of contaminant loads in streams are fundamentally different to those already described for non-flowing systems. In addition, the present thesis provides knowledge on how the interaction of macrophyte-induced processes in streams contributes to mitigate loads of organic contaminants and the related risk for aquatic environments.
Etwa 50 % der Fläche Europas werden landwirtschaftlich genutzt. Dennoch gibt es nahezu keine Information ob Fledermäuse diese Flächen beispielsweise zur Nahrungsaufnahme nutzen. Aufgrund der limitierten Datenbasis mangelt es auch an Schutzkonzepten, die mögliche negative Effekte der landwirtschaftlichen Intensivierung auf die Fledermäuse und deren Nahrungsgrundlage ausgleichen könnten. Da die Exposition von Fledermäusen mit Pflanzenschutzmitteln bislang nicht thematisiert wurde, sind im europäischen Zulassungsverfahren für Pflanzenschutzmittel keine Risikoabschätzungen für Fledermäuse gefordert. Um für Fledermäuse die mögliche Exposition gegenüber Pflanzenschutzmitteln abschätzen zu können, sind Informationen über Vorkommen und Aktivität von Fledermäusen in landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen erforderlich. Die Erfassung von Fledermäusen auf einer Vielzahl von Flächen machte es notwendig sich im Vorfeld auf eine geeignete Methodik festzulegen. Die akustische Fledermauserfassung ist im Gegensatz zu deutlich zeitaufwändigeren Methoden wie Netzfang, Telemetrie oder direktes Beobachten die einzige logistisch durchführbare Methode. In der wissenschaftlichen Literatur werden jedoch bei vielen bisher durchgeführten akustischen Methoden Bedenken bezüglich der Berücksichtigung zeitlicher und räumlicher Varianz und der Eignung der verwendeten Detektorsysteme geäußert. Deshalb wurden verschiedene Methoden und Detektorsysteme verglichen und das parallele Beproben mit mehreren stationären und kalibrierten automatischen Aufnahmesystemen als die am besten geeignete Methode zur verlässlichen und vergleichbaren Fledermausaktivitäts-Erfassung befunden.
Mit dieser Methode wurden die Fledermaus-Diversitäten und Aktivitäten in verschiedenen landwirtschaftlichen Kulturen, Wiesen und Wäldern aufgenommen. Außerdem wurde gleichzeitig die Verfügbarkeit von fliegenden Insekten (potentieller Fledermausbeute) mit Licht- oder Klebefallen erfasst. In mehr als 500 Erfassungsnächten wurden circa 110,000 akustische Fledermaus-Rufsequenzen und nahezu 120,000 nachtaktive Insekten gesammelt. Insgesamt wurden 14 Fledermausarten nachgewiesen, darunter die im Gebiet sehr seltene und stark bedrohte Nordfledermaus (Eptesicus nilssonii) und die Mopsfledermaus (Barbastella barbastellum). Alle Arten wurden auch auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen detektiert.
Die Landwirtschaft im südlichen Rheinland-Pfalz ist durch Weinanbau geprägt. Die Untersuchungen zeigten, dass Weinberge aufgrund der geringen Verfügbarkeit an kleineren nachtaktiven Insekten für die meisten Fledermausarten nur eine geringe Qualität als Jagdgebiet haben. Ein weiterer paarweiser Vergleich von Weinbergen und benachbarten Regenrückhaltebecken bezüglich Nahrungsverfügbarkeit und Fledermausaktivität zeigte, dass Regenrückhaltebecken wichtige Nahrungshabitate im Weinbaugebiet darstellen. Das Anlegen dieser künstlichen Kleingewässer ist somit eine geeignete Methode um Nahrungshabitate für Fledermäuse zu schaffen und damit den negativen Effekten der konventionellen Landwirtschaft hinsichtlich der Nahrungsverfügbarkeit entgegenzuwirken. In anderen landwirtschaftlichen Kulturen wurden mit den parallel untersuchten Wald- und Wiesenhabitaten vergleichbar hohe Insektenvorkommen und Fledermausaktivitäten nachgewiesen. Besonders hohe Fledermausaktivitäten so wie eine besonders hohe Verfügbarkeit von geeigneten Nahrungstieren wurden in Apfelplantangen und Gemüsefeldern gemessen. Da diese beiden Kulturen hohem Pestizidaufwand unterliegen, kann eine Exposition von Fledermäusen gegenüber Pflanzenschutzmitteln dort nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Um das zurzeit verwendete Verfahren zur Risikoabschätzung von Pflanzenschutzmittel-anwendungen auf Vögel und Säuger auf Fledermäuse zu übertragen, wurden nach Applikation eines Insektizides dessen Rückstände auf Fledermaus-artspezifischen Beuteinsekten gemessen. Parallel dazu wurde die Fledermausaktivität erfasst. Die höchsten Pestizidrückstände wurden auf kronenbewohnenden Insekten und Spinnen nachgewiesen. Die darauf basierende Risikoabschätzung deutet auf ein Langzeitrisiko für alle Fledermausarten, die sich wenigstens zum Teil von kronenbewohnenden Arthropoden ernähren, hin. Das Vorkommen von Fledermäusen in landwirtschaftlichen Flächen, die einen Großteil der europäischen, aber auch der weltweiten Fläche ausmachen, führt je nach Kultur zur Exposition von Fledermäusen durch kontaminierte Nahrung oder zu einer Verringerung von Beuteinsekten. Bisher konzentrierten sich Schutzbemühungen auf die Sicherung von Winterquartieren und die Bereitstellung künstlicher Tagesquartiere. Potentielle Effekte von Pflanzenschutzmitteln auf Agrarflächen haben aber möglicherweise einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Populationsgrößen von Fledermausarten die in diesen Gebieten vorkommen. Aus diesem Grund sollten die Effekte von Pflanzenschutzmitteln auf Fledermäuse untersucht werden, insbesondere bei der Risikoabschätzung im Pflanzenschutzmittel-Zulassungsverfahren.
Factors triggering the ecotoxicity of metal-based nanoparticles towards aquatic invertebrates
(2015)
Heutzutage werden Nanopartikel in großem Maßstab produziert, weshalb deren Eintrag in Oberflächengewässer immer wahrscheinlicher wird. Dort angelangt unterliegen sie verschiedenen umweltbedingten (Oberflächen-)Modifikationen, die in letzter Konsequenz eine Vielfalt von Nanopartikel-Agglomeraten unterschiedlicher Größe hervorbringen. Direkt davon betroffen sind aquatische Lebewesen, die einer entsprechenden Nanopartikelexposition in der Wasserphase ausgesetzt sind.
Nach Sedimentation der Agglomerate können aber ebenfalls benthische Organismen betroffen sein. Bisherige ökotoxikologische Untersuchungen haben solche umweltbedingten Einflüsse außer Acht gelassen und viel mehr nanopartikel-spezifische Charakteristika auf deren Wirkweise gegenüber pelagischen Vertretern untersucht. Aus diesem Grund ist eine systematische Untersuchung derer Faktoren von Nöten, die den Verbleib und das Verhalten aber auch die Toxizität von Nanopartikeln in der Umwelt maßgeblich beeinflussen. Die kumulative Arbeit dieser Dissertation macht sich dies zum Ziel und hinterfragt entsprechende Faktoren die einerseits durch Nanopartikel assoziierte Aspekte (definiert als i) inhärente Stoffeigenschaft des untersuchten Materials und ii) Nanopartikel Charakteristika)) und andererseits durch Umweltbedingungen in Oberflächengewässern geprägt sind. In diesem Kontext wurden verschiedene ökotoxikologische Untersuchungen mit inerten Titandioxid Nanopartikeln (nTiO2) und Ionen freisetzenden Silber Nanopartikeln (nAg) unter Berücksichtigung verschiedener Nanopartikel Charakteristika (z.B. initiale Partikelgröße, Oberflächengröße) und Umweltbedingungen (z.B. Ionenstärke, ultraviolettes Licht (UV-Licht)), durchgeführt.
Als Testorganismen dienten dazu die pelagischen bzw. benthischen Vertreter Daphnia magna und Gammarus fossarum. Die Ergebnisse deuten daraufhin, dass die Toxizität von nTiO2 und nAg gegenüber Daphnien maßgeblich durch das Adsorptionspotential (im Bezug auf das Anhaften der Partikel an die Organismenoberfläche) und das Umweltverhalten (Freisetzung von radikalen Sauerstoffspezies oder Metallionen) der Nanopartikel bestimmt wird.
Darüber hinaus wurde die Nanopartikeltoxizität von jenen inhärenten Stoffeigenschaften, Nanopartikelcharakteritika und Umweltbedingungen am meisten beeinflusst, welche die zuvor genannten Aspekte entweder verstärken oder abschwächen. Hierfür beispielhaft ist der toxizitätsverstärkende Effekt von UV-Licht auf nTiO2 in Experimenten mit Gammarus: Während eine Exposition der Organismen in absoluter Dunkelheit selbst bei 5,00 mg nTiO2/L keine Effekt hervorrief, kam es in der Anwesenheit von UV-Licht schon bei 0,20 mg nTiO2/L zu schwerwiegenden Effekten auf sublethaler und lethaler Ebene.
Unter Berücksichtigung der Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation sowie bisherige Erkenntnisse der Wissenschaft im Allgemeinen, ist die derzeitige Risikoeinschätzung von Nanopartikeln möglicherweise unprotektiv, sofern eine Interaktion von Nanopartikeln und Umwelteinflüssen unberücksichtigt bleibt
Weltweit sind ein Drittel bis die Hälfte der Flusskrebsarten von Populationsrückgang oder Aussterben bedroht. Neben einer Verschlechterung der Habitate, Umweltverschmutzung und anderen vom Menschen verursachten Umweltveränderungen stellen eingeschleppte exotische Arten und Krankheitserreger eine große Bedrohung für das Überleben europäischer Flusskrebsarten dar. Flusskrebse sind die größten Wirbellosen in limnischen Systemen und haben einen entsprechend großen Einfluss auf die Struktur der Nahrungsnetze. Das Verschwinden von Flusskrebsen aus einem Gewässer kann Nahrungsnetze verändern und somit dramatische Konsequenzen für ein Ökosystem zur Folge haben. Ein Ziel im modernen Artenschutz ist die Erhaltung der genetischen Vielfalt. Eine hohe genetische Vielfalt ist für das langfristige Überleben einer Art von Vorteil.
Das Hauptziel meiner Arbeit war es, die genetische Struktur des gefährdeten Edelkrebses (Astacus astacus) in seinem europäischen Verbreitungsgebiet zu untersuchen und die besonders schützenswerten genetische 'Hotspots' zu identifizieren (Teil 1 der Dissertation). Die größte Bedrohung für die Diversität europäischer Flusskrebsarten stellt der Krebspesterreger Aphanomyces astaci dar. Daher muss die Verbreitung des Krankheitserregers bei Schutzprogrammen beachtet werden.
Im zweiten Teil der Dissertation untersuchte ich neue Aspekte der Verbreitung von A. astaci. Die Ergebnisse dienen als Grundlage für zukünftige Artenschutzprogramme für Flusskrebse.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit führte ich eine phylogeographische Analyse der Edelkrebse durch, um genetische 'Hotspots' zu identifizieren und die nacheiszeitliche Wiederbesiedlung Zentraleuropas durch diese Art zu rekonstruieren. Mit mitochondrialer DNA und nuklearen Mikrosatelliten-Markern ermittelte ich eine hohe genetische Vielfalt in Südosteuropa, die darauf hinweist, dass der Edelkrebs die kalten Klimaphasen des Pleistozäns in diesem Gebiet überdauerte (Appendix 1). Wegen der hohen genetischen Vielfalt ist Südosteuropa von besonderer Bedeutung für den Schutz des Edelkrebses. Die mitochondriale DNA-Analyse deutet auf eine gegabelte Kolonisierung vom unteren Donaueinzugsgebiet in a) das Einzugsgebiet der Nordsee und b) das Einzugsgebiet der Ostsee hin (Kapitel 2). Ein zweites, unabhängiges Refugium, welches im westlichen Balkan lokalisiert wurde, hat vermutlich nicht zur Besiedlung Mitteleuropas beigetragen. Außerdem stellte ich fest, dass die natürliche genetische Struktur teilweise überlagert ist, wahrscheinlich aufgrund des hohen menschlichen Einflusses auf die Verbreitung des Edelkrebses (bspw. künstliche Translokation). Im zweite Teil dieser Arbeit konnte ich mittels real-time-PCR ermitteln, dass neben den bekannten drei nordamerikanischen Flusskrebsarten auch Kalikokrebse (Orconectes immunis) Träger des Krebspesterregers sind (Kapitel 3). Des Weiteren habe ich den Krebspesterrreger in der unteren Donau in Rumänien an amerikanischen Kamberkrebsen (Orconectes limosus) und europäischen Galizierkrebsen (Astacus leptodactylus) nachweisen können (Kapitel 4). Die Ausbreitung der infizierten Kamberkrebse bis in die untere Donau stellt eine große Bedrohung für die Artenvielfalt in Südosteuropa dar und zeigt das hohe Invasionspotential der Kamberkrebse. Darüber hinaus stellte ich fest, dass auch einheimische Galizierkrebse im Donaudelta, etwa 970 km hinter der aktuellen Invasionsfront des Kamberkrebses, Träger von A. astaci sind (Kapitel 5). Diese Erkenntnis ist von besonderer Bedeutung, da die einheimischen Arten offenbar nicht an der Infektion leiden. Die Untersuchung koexistierender Populationen europäischer und amerikanischer Flusskrebse ergab, dass die Abwesenheit des Krebspesterregers in diesen Populationen die wahrscheinlichste Erklärung für die erfolgreiche Koexistenz in den untersuchten Gewässern in Mitteleuropa ist (Kapitel 6). Die Ergebnisse meiner Dissertation zeigen neue Aspekte, die von hoher Relevanz für den Schutz und Erhalt einheimischer Flusskrebsarten und deren genetischer Vielfalt sind: 1)Die genetische Diversität des Edelkrebses ist in Südosteuropa am höchsten. Dort überdauerten Edelkrebse die letzte Eiszeit in mindestens zwei unabhängigen Refugien. 2) Nicht alle amerikanischen Flusskrebspopulationen sind Träger der Krebspest und 3) nicht alle europäischen Flusskrebspopulationen sterben innerhalb kurzer Zeit an einer Infizierung mit dem Krebspesterreger. Um einheimische Flusskrebse und deren (genetische) Vielfalt langfristig zu erhalten, dürfen keine weiteren amerikanischen Flusskrebse in der Natur ausgesetzt werden. Das unbefugte Aussetzen wird jedoch erst zurückgehen, wenn der Handel mit exotischen Flusskrebsen verboten wird.
To assess the effect of organic compounds on the aquatic environment, organisms are typically exposed to toxicant solutions and the adverse effects observed are linked to the concentration in the surrounding media. As compounds generally need to be taken up into the organism and distributed to the respective target sites for the induction of effects, the internal exposure is postulated to best represent the observed effects.
The aim of this work is to contribute to an improved effect assessment of organic compounds by describing experimental and modelling methods to obtain information on the internal exposure of contaminants in organisms.
Chapter 2 details a protocol for the determination of bioconcentration parameter for uptake (k1) and elimination (k2) of organic compounds in zebrafish (Danio rerio) eggs. This enables the simulation of the internal exposure in zebrafish eggs from an ambient exposure concentration over time. The accumulated contaminant amount in zebrafish eggs was also determined, using a biomimetic extraction method. Different bioconc-entration estimation models for the determination of internal steady-state concentrat-ion of pharmaceutical compounds in fish to an environmental exposure are presented in Chapter 3. Bioconcentration factors were estimated from the compounds octanol: water partition coefficient (KOW) to determine the internal exposure to an ambient concentration.
To assess the integral bioavailable fraction from the water and sediment phase of environmental contaminants for rooted aquatic plants, the internal exposure in river-living Myriophyllum aquaticum plants were determined over time, presented in Chapter 4. The plants were collected at different time points, with the accumulated organic contaminants determined using a liquid extraction method.
In Chapter 5 a protocol was established to enable the non-invasive observation of effects in M. aquaticum plants exposed to contaminated sediments over time. Since the toxicant effects are a result of all uptake and distribution processes to the target site and the toxico-dynamic process leading to an observed effect during static exposure, information on the internal exposure could thus be gained from the temporal effect expression.rn