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This study examines the contribution of saving and credit cooperatives (SACCOS) on the improvement of members‘ socio economic development in Rwanda: Opportunities and challenges‖, Evidence from Umwalimu SACCO- Huye District‖. The appearance of saving and credit cooperatives or credit unions has been known as remedy for social ills rooted in poverty because of its efficiency in loans or credits dispensation, social equality for enhancement and reduction of poverty amongst low income earners. Therefore, millions and millions of poor people and non-bankable in developing countries (or third world countries) have been provided access to formal financial services through saving and credit cooperatives‘ programs.
The targeted population concerned by the study was 1,940 members of USACCO from which a sample of 92 respondents was purposively selected. The study has adopted a combination of correlation and descriptive research design. It has employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The study used both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected using questionnaire and interview and, while secondary data was collected using documentations techniques whereby, Manual of procedures and Credit policies of USACCO and financial reports have been consulted. The analysis of data was done using SPSS version 21. The data was presented in form of tables, charts and graphs designed by SPSS v. 21. The bio-characteristics of respondents showed that, the majority of respondents were women with 55.4%, majority of respondents‘ age is between 26 to 45 years Furthermore, and majority 77.20% of respondents were married. 100% of respondents attended school, where the majority of respondents attended secondary school with certificate A2.
The study has revealed that Umwalimu SACCO services offered to its members have a positive effect on the improvement of members‘ welfare. It was found that USACCO services have slightly affected income level of members, assets acquired, access to education and medical care as well as small income generating activities established by members in Huye District. The analysis of data also revealed that there are some variables which have effected USACCO members‘ socio-economic status, these were listed as: Education background of a member, number of dependents, the occupation of a member, and number of loans got from USACCO, government programs against teachers‘ welfare, and membership duration played very important role on the improvement of standard living of teachers. All these variables were found to have positive effects on teachers‘ socio-economic status, except the family size of respondents.
In addition, the findings showed that, the majority of respondents confirmed that, they did not find opportunities to save with other financial institutions, and other respondents did not have access to loan from other financial institutions due to complicated loan requirements. In addition, after they
have joined USACCO, their deplorable status somewhat changed, both socially and economically which has contributed to the improvement of their welfare. Therefore, the study testified that, the welfare of USACCO members in terms of assets acquired, income increased was improved compared to situation before joining USACCO. The study concludes that ―the level of improvement of living conditions of teachers depends largely to the level of loan granted by USACCO to teachers and membership duration. If the level of teachers‘ loan and saving increases, there will be also improvement of teachers‘ wellbeing‖ and finally, USACCO financial service is a veritable instrument for better improvement of economic and social conditions of teachers. The study recommends that, USACCO should provide frequent and regular trainings on business management game to their members. This could help members for good management of their loans and reducing loan defaulters‘ cases observed at USACCO. Challenges observed were lack of physical collateral security required by USACCO, complicated loan requirements terms and conditions and insufficient trainings on business management game.
Typischerweise erweitern Augmented Reality (AR)-Anwendungen die Sicht des Benutzers auf die reale Welt um virtuelle Objekte.
In den letzten Jahren hat AR zunehmend an Popularität und Aufmerksamkeit gewonnen. Dies hat zu Verbesserungen der benötigten Technologien geführt. AR ist dadurch für fast jeden zugänglich geworden.
Forscher sind dem Ziel einer glaubwürdigen AR, in der reale und virtuelle Welten nahtlos miteinander verbunden sind, einen großen Schritt näher gekommen. Sie konzentrieren sich hauptsächlich auf Themen wie Tracking, Anzeige-Technologien und Benutzerinteraktion und schenken der visuellen und physischen Kohärenz bei der Kombination realer und virtueller Objekte wenig Aufmerksamkeit. Beispielsweise sollen virtuelle Objekte nicht nur auf die Eingaben des Benutzers reagieren, sondern auch mit realen Objekten interagieren. Generell wird AR glaubwürdiger und realistischer, wenn virtuelle Objekte fixiert oder verankert in der realen Szene erscheinen, sich nicht von der realen Szene unterscheiden und auf Veränderungen dieser Szene reagieren.
Diese Arbeit untersucht drei Herausforderungen im Bereich Maschinelles Sehen um dem Ziel einer glaubwürdig kombinierten Welt näher zu kommen, in der virtuelle Objekte wie reale erscheinen und sich ebenso verhalten.
Diese Dissertation konzentriert sich als erstes auf das bekannte Tracking- und Registrierungsproblem. Hierzu wird die Herausforderung von Tracking und Registrierung diskutiert und ein Ansatz vorgestellt, um die Position und den Blickpunkt des Benutzers zu schätzen, so dass virtuelle Objekte in der realen Welt fest verankert erscheinen. Linienmodelle, die dem Erscheinungsbild entsprechen und nur für Trackingzwecke relevante Kanten beinhalten, ermöglichen eine absolute Registrierung in der realen Welt und ein robustes Tracking. Einerseits ist es nicht notwendig, viel Zeit in die manuelle Erstellung geeigneter Modelle zu investieren, andererseits ist das Tracking in der Lage mit Änderungen innerhalb des zu verfolgenden Objekts oder Szene umzugehen. Versuche haben gezeigt, dass die Verwendung von solchen Linienmodellen die Robustheit, Genauigkeit und Re-initialisierungsgeschwindigkeit des Tracking-Prozesses verbessert haben.
Zweitens beschäftigt sich diese Dissertation mit dem Thema der Oberflächenrekonstruk\-tion einer realen Umgebung und präsentiert einen Algorithmus zur Optimierung einer laufenden Oberflächenrekonstruktion. Vollständige 3D-Oberflächenrekonstruktionen einer Szene
eröffnen neue Möglichkeiten um realistischere AR-Anwendungen zu erstellen. Verschiedene Interaktionen zwischen realen und virtuellen Objekten, wie Kollisionen und Verdeckungen, können physikalisch korrekt behandelt werden. Während sich die bisherigen Methoden darauf konzentrierten die Oberflächenrekonstruktionen nach einem Aufnahmeschritt zu verbessern, wird die Rekonstruktion während der Aufnahme erweitert, Löcher werden geschlossen und Rauschen wird reduziert. Um eine unbekannte Umgebung zu erkunden muss der Benutzer keine Vorbereitungen treffen. Das Scannen der Szene oder eine vorhergehende Auseinandersetzung mit der zugrundeliegenden Technologie ist somit nicht notwendig.
In Experimenten lieferte der Ansatz realistische Ergebnisse, bei denen bekannte Oberflächen für verschiedene Oberflächentypen erweitert und Löcher plausibel gefüllt wurden.
Anschließend konzentriert sich diese Dissertation auf die Behandlung von realistischen Verdeckungen zwischen realer und virtueller Welt. Hierzu wird die Herausforderung der Verdeckung als Alpha Matting Problem formuliert. Die vorgestellte Methode überwindet die Grenzen moderner Methoden, indem ein Überblendungskoeffizienten pro Pixel der gerenderten virtuellen Szene schätzt wird, anstatt nur deren Sichtbarkeit zu berechnen. In mehreren Experimenten und Vergleichen mit anderen Methoden hat sich die Verdeckungsbehandlung durch Alpha Matting als robust erwiesen und kann mit Daten, die durch preiswerte Sensoren aufgenommen wurden, umgehen. Hinsichtlich der Qualität, des Realismus und der praktischen Anwendbarkeit übertrifft die Methode die Ergebnisse von bisherigen Ansätzen.
Des Weiteren kann die Methode mit verrauschten Tiefendaten umgehen und liefert realistische Ergebnisse in Regionen, in denen Vorder- und Hintergrund nicht strikt voneinander trennbar sind (z.B. bei Objekten mit einer undeutlichen Kontur oder durch Bewegungsunschärfe).
Despite the significant presence of neuroactive substances in the environment, bioassays that allow to detect diverse groups of neuroactive mechanisms of action are not well developed and not properly integrated into environmental monitoring and chemical regulation. Therefore, there is a need to develop testing methods which are amenable for fast and high-throughput neurotoxicity testing. The overall goal of this thesis work is to develop a test method for the toxicological characterization and screening of neuroactive substances and their mixtures which could be used for prospective and diagnostic hazard assessment.
In this thesis, the behavior of zebrafish embryos was explored as a promising tool to distinguish between different neuroactive mechanisms of action. Recently, new behavioral tests have been developed including photomotor response (PMR), locomotor response (LMR) and spontaneous tail coiling (STC) tests. However, the experimental parameters of these tests lack consistency in protocols such as exposure time, imaging time, age of exposure, endpoint parameter etc. To understand how experimental parameters may influence the toxicological interpretation of behavior tests, a systematic review of existing behavioral assays was conducted in Chapter 2. Results show that exposure concentration and exposure duration highly influenced the comparability between different test methods and the spontaneous tail coiling (STC) test was selected for further testing based on its relative higher sensitivity and capacity to detect neuroactive substances (Chapter 2).
STC is the first observable motor activity generated by the developing neural network of the embryo which is assumed to occur as a result of the innervation of the muscle by the primary motor neurons. Therefore, STC could be a useful endpoint to detect effect on the muscle innervation and also the on the whole nervous system. Consequently, important parameters of the STC test were optimized and an automated workflow to evaluate the STC with the open access software KNIME® was developed (Chapter 3).
To appropriately interpret the observed effect of a single chemical and especially mixture effects, requires the understanding of toxicokinetics and biotransformation. Most importantly, the biotransformation capacity of zebrafish embryos might be limited and this could be a challenge for assessment of chemicals such as organophosphates which require a bioactivation step to effectively inhibit the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme. Therefore, the influence of the potential limited biotransformation on the toxicity pathway of a typical organophosphate, chlorpyrifos, was investigated in Chapter 5. Chlorpyrifos could not inhibit AChE and this was attributed to possible lack of biotransformation in 24 hpf embryos (Chapter 5).
Since neuroactive substances occur in the environment as mixtures, it is therefore more realistic to assess their combined effect rather than individually. Therefore, mixture toxicity was predicted using the concentration addition and independent action models. Result shows that mixtures of neuroactive substances with different mechanisms of action but similar effects can be predicted with concentration addition and independent action (Chapter 4). Apart
from being able to predict the combined effect of neuroactive substances for prospective risk assessment, it is also important to assess in retrospect the combined neurotoxic effect of environmental samples since neuroactive substances are the largest group of chemicals occurring in the environment. In Chapter 6, the STC test was found to be capable of detecting neurotoxic effects of a wastewater effluent sample. Hence, the STC test is proposed as an effect based tool for monitoring environmental acute and neurotoxic effects.
Overall, this thesis shows the utility and versatility of zebrafish embryo behavior testing for screening neuroactive substances and this allows to propose its use for prospective and diagnostic hazard assessment. This will enhance the move away from expensive and demanding animal testing. The information contained in this thesis is of great potential to provide precautionary solutions, not only for the exposure of humans to neuroactive chemicals but for the environment at large.
Wildbienen sind unerlässlich für die Bestäubung von Wild- und Kulturpflanzen. Die zunehmende Intensivierung der Landwirtschaft führte jedoch sowohl zu einer Verringerung und Fragmentierung als auch zu einer Wertminderung der von ihnen benötigten Lebensräume innerhalb der letzten Jahrzehnte. Die damit einhergehenden Verluste von Bestäubern und ihrer Bestäubung stellt die weltweite Nahrungsmittelproduktion vor eine immense Herausforderung. Zur Förderung von Wildbienen ist die Verfügbarkeit von Blüteressourcen essentiell. Die Blühdauer einzelner Ressourcen ist jedoch zeitlich begrenzt und hat, je nach Blütezeitpunkt, unterschiedliche Effekte auf Bestäuber und deren Bestäubung.
Um Wildbienen als Bestäuber in Agrarlandschaften effizient fördern und nutzen zu können, identifizierten wir deshalb die artspezifischen Schlüsselressourcen dreier ausgewählter Wildbienen und deren räumliche und zeitliche Verfügbarkeit (KAPITEL 2, 3 & 4). Wir untersuchten, welche Habitatstypen diese Ressourcen überwiegend bereitstellen (KAPITEL 3 & 4). Wir untersuchten zudem, ob Blütenressourcenkarten, die auf der Nutzung dieser Schlüsselressourcen und deren räumlich zeitlicher Verfügbarkeit basieren, die Abundanzen und die Entwicklung der ausgewählten Wildbienen (KAPITEL 3 & 4) und die Bestäubung (KAPITEL 5) besser erklären als Habitatkarten, die die Verfügbarkeit von Blüteressourcen nur indirekt beschreiben.
Für jede der untersuchten Arten konnten wir unterschiedliche, im frühen Saisonverlauf (April/Mai) überwiegend holzige im späteren Verlauf (Juni/Juli) auch zunehmend krautige, Schlüsselarten identifizieren (KAPITEL 2, 3 & 4). Die Wildobst- und Wildheckengehölze unserer Agrarlandschaften stellten rund 75% der Blütenressourcen für Erdhummeln, 60% für Rote Mauerbienen und 55% für Gehörnte Mauerbienen bereit, obwohl sie einen Flächenanteil von nur 3% ausmachten (KAPITEL 3 & 4). Obstplantagen stellten zusätzlich rund 35% des Blütenangebots für Gehörnte Mauerbienen auf 4% der Fläche bereit (KAPITEL 3). Wir konnten zeigen, dass beide Mauerbienenarten von der Ressourcenverfügbarkeit in den umliegenden Landschaften profitierten (KAPITEL 3). Bei Erdhummeln zeigte sich dieser Zusammenhang jedoch nicht (KAPITEL 4). Stattdessen waren die Gewichtszunahme ihrer Kolonien, die Anzahlen der darin ausgebildeten Königinnenzellen und die Überlebensdauer der Kolonie mit zunehmender Nähe zum Wald höher. Ebenfalls auf die beiden Mauerbienenarten wirkte sich die Waldnähe positiv aus (KAPITEL 3). Daneben profitierten Rote Mauerbienen durch krautige halbnatürliche Habitate. Nachteilig wirkten sich Siedlungsflächen auf die Gehörnten Mauerbienen, und Ackerland auf die Roten Mauerbienen aus. Habitatkarten erklärten die Abundanzen der Gehörnten Mauerbienen gleich gut wie Blütenressourcenkarten, jedoch wurden die Abundanzen der Roten Mauerbienen deutlich besser durch Schlüsselressourcen erklärt. Die Bestäubung der Ackerbohne erhöhte sich mit höheren Anteilen früher Blütenressourcen (KAPITEL 5). Dabei zeigte sich keine messbare Reduktion der Bestäubung durch gleichzeitig blühende Ressourcen. Habitatkarten erklärten die Bestäubung der Ackerbohne auch besser als Blütenressourcenkarten. Dabei nahm die Bestäubung mit zunehmenden Anteilen an Siedlungsflächen in den Landschaften zu und reduzierte sich mit zunehmenden Anteilen von Ackerland.
Unsere Ergebnisse verdeutlichen die Wichtigkeit der räumlich-zeitlichen Verfügbarkeit bestimmter Schlüsselarten als Ressourcenpflanzen von Wildbienen in Agrarlandschaften. Sie zeigen, dass Habitatkarten detaillierten Blütenressourcenkarten in der Vorhersage der Entwicklung von Wildbienen und deren Bestäubung voraus oder zumindest ebenbürtig sind. Dennoch ermöglichen es
Blütenressourcenkarten, genauere Schlüsse zwischen den einzelnen Ressourcen und den untersuchten Organismen zu ziehen. Die Nähe zu Waldrändern wirkte sich positiv auf jede der drei untersuchten Wildbienenarten aus. Neben der reinen Nahrungsverfügbarkeit scheinen jedoch weitere Faktoren das Vorkommen von Wildbienen in Agrarlandschaften mitzubestimmen.
Efficient Cochlear Implant (CI) surgery requires prior knowledge of the cochlea’s size and its characteristics. This information helps to select suitable implants for different patients. Registered and fused images helps doctors by providing more informative image that takes advantages of different modalities. The cochlea’s small size and complex structure, in addition to the different resolutions and head positions during imaging, reveals a big challenge for the automated registration of the different image modalities. To obtain an automatic measurement of the cochlea length and the volume size, a segmentation method of cochlea medical images is needed. The goal of this dissertation is to introduce new practical and automatic algorithms for the human cochlea multi-modal 3D image registration, fusion, segmentation and analysis. Two novel methods for automatic cochlea image registration (ACIR) and automatic cochlea analysis (ACA) are introduced. The proposed methods crop the input images to the cochlea part and then align the cropped images to obtain the optimal transformation. After that, this transformation is used to align the original images. ACIR and ACA use Mattes mutual information as similarity metric, the adaptive stochastic gradient descent (ASGD) or the stochastic limited memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (s-LBFGS) optimizer to estimate the parameters of 3D rigid transform. The second stage of nonrigid registration estimates B-spline coefficients that are used in an atlas-model-based segmentation to extract cochlea scalae and the relative measurements of the input image. The image which has segmentation is aligned to the input image to obtain the non-rigid transformation. After that the segmentation of the first image, in addition to point-models are transformed to the input image. The detailed transformed segmentation provides the scala volume size. Using the transformed point-models, the A-value, the central scala lengths, the lateral and the organ of corti scala tympani lengths are computed. The methods have been tested using clinical 3D images of total 67 patients: from Germany (41 patients) and Egypt (26 patients). The atients are of different ages and gender. The number of images used in the experiments is 217, which are multi-modal 3D clinical images from CT, CBCT, and MRI scanners. The proposed methods are compared to the state of the arts ptimizers related medical image registration methods e.g. fast adaptive stochastic gradient descent (FASGD) and efficient preconditioned tochastic gradient descent (EPSGD). The comparison used the root mean squared distance (RMSE) between the ground truth landmarks and the resulted landmarks. The landmarks are located manually by two experts to represent the round window and the top of the cochlea. After obtaining the transformation using ACIR, the landmarks of the moving image are transformed using the resulted transformation and RMSE of the transformed landmarks, and at the same time the fixed image landmarks are computed. I also used the active length of the cochlea implant electrodes to compute the error aroused by the image artifact, and I found out an error ranged from 0.5 mm to 1.12 mm. ACIR method’s RMSE average was 0.36 mm with a standard deviation (SD) of 0.17 mm. The total time average required for registration of an image pair using ACIR was 4.62 seconds with SD of 1.19 seconds. All experiments are repeated 3 times for justifications. Comparing the RMSE of ACIR2017 and ACIR2020 using paired T-test shows no significant difference (p-value = 0.17). The total RMSE average of ACA method was 0.61 mm with a SD of 0.22 mm. The total time average required for analysing an image was 5.21 seconds with SD of 0.93 seconds. The statistical tests show that there is no difference between the results from automatic A-value method and the manual A-value method (p-value = 0.42). There is no difference also between length’s measurements of the left and the right ear sides (p-value > 0.16). Comparing the results from German and Egypt dataset shows there is no difference when using manual or automatic A-value methods (p-value > 0.20). However, there is a significant difference when using ACA2000 method between the German and the Egyptian results (p-value < 0.001). The average time to obtain the segmentation and all measurements was 5.21 second per image. The cochlea scala tympani volume size ranged from 38.98 mm3 to 57.67 mm3 . The combined scala media and scala vestibuli volume size ranged from 34.98 mm 3 to 49.3 mm 3 . The overall volume size of the cochlea should range from 73.96 mm 3 to 106.97 mm 3 . The lateral wall length of scala tympani ranged from 42.93 mm to 47.19 mm. The organ-of-Corti length of scala tympani ranged from 31.11 mm to 34.08 mm. Using the A-value method, the lateral length of scala tympani ranged from 36.69 mm to 45.91 mm. The organ-of-Corti length of scala tympani ranged from 29.12 mm to 39.05 mm. The length from ACA2020 method can be visualised and has a well-defined endpoints. The ACA2020 method works on different modalities and different images despite the noise level or the resolution. In the other hand, the A-value method works neither on MRI nor noisy images. Hence, ACA2020 method may provide more reliable and accurate measurement than the A-value method. The source-code and the datasets are made publicly available to help reproduction and validation of my result.
In den vergangenen Jahrzehnten haben sich Einzelpartikelanalyse (EPA) und Kryotransmissionselektronenmikroskopie(Kryo-EM) zu einer der führenden Technologien für die strukturelle Analyse von biologischen Makromolekülen entwickelt. Dies erlaubt die Untersuchung biologischer Strukturen in einem möglichst naturgetreuen Zustand auf molekularer Ebene. In den letzten fünf Jahren überwand die EPA erstmals die Auflösungsgrenze von 2°A und erreichte somit atomare Auflösung, was bislang nur mittels Röntgenkristallographie möglich war. Ein bestehendes Problem der Kryo-EM ist der schwache Bildkontrast. Seit der Einführung der Kryo-EM in den 1980er Jahren, wurde an Phasenplatten als mögliches Werkzeug, zur Verbesserung des Bildkontrasts geforscht. Hier limitierten immer technische Probleme bei der Herstellung oder geräteseitige Limitierungen, wie z.B. Hysterese der Linsen, den erfolgreichen Einsatz solcher Phasenplatten. Insbesondere ein automatisierter Arbeitsablauf für die Steuerung des Mikroskops und die Aufnahme der Bilder ließ sich nie realisieren. In dieser Doktorarbeit wurde eine neue Zernike-Phasenplatte entwickelt und untersucht. Freistehende Metallfilme dienten als Phasenplattenmaterial, um Alterungsund Kontaminationsprobleme der bislang üblichen kohlenstoffbasierten Phasenplatten zu überwinden. In ersten Experimenten zur Materialwahl wurde Iridium als geeignetes Metall identifiziert. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit behandelt die Untersuchung der Iridium-Phasenplatten hinsichtlich ihrer Eigenschaften und ihrem Verhalten im Elektronenmikroskop. Ein Resultat dieser Experimente ist der sogenannte rocking-Modus, bei dem die Phasenplatte während der Aufnahme bewegt wird und wodurch sich Streuungs- und andere Artefakte, die bei den Zernike-Phasenplatten üblicherweise auftreten, verhindern oder deutlich reduzieren ließen. Die Entwicklung eines angepassten Workflow ermöglichte die Aufnahme von EPADatens ätzen mit Phasenplatte über mehrere Tage. Für die Evaluierung der Phasenplattendaten wurden Datensätze von Apoferritin mit und ohne Phasenplatte aufgenommen und miteinander verglichen.
The stands surveyed are among the last closed canopy forests in Rwanda. Their exploration began in the early twentieth century and is still ongoing. Previous studies were mainly concerned with plant sociological issues and presented references to environmental factors in anecdotal form, at best using indirect ordination methods. The present study undertakes a classification of the vegetation with numerical methods and establishes quantitative relationships of the species’ distributional structure to environmental parameters using spatially explicit procedures. For this purpose, 94 samples were taken in 100 m² hexagonal plots. Of these, 70 samples are from Nyungwe, 14 are from Gishwati, and 10 are from Cyamudongo. Given the homogeneity of the terrain and vegetation, all vegetation types encountered, all types of stands, and all vegetation strata were included. The beta diversity is expressed by an average Bray-Curtis dissimilarity of 0.92, and in JOST’S (2007) numbers equivalents, 37.90 equally likely samples would be needed to represent the diversity encountered. Within the survey, 1198 species in 127 families were collected. Among the specimens are 6 local endemics and 40 Albertine Rift endemics. Resulting from UPGMA and FCM-NC, 20 to 40 plant communities were established depending on the level of resolution. It can be inferred by means of a Mantel correlogram that the mean zone of influence of a single vegetation stand, as sampled by a 100 m² plot in Nyungwe Forest, ranges between 0.016 and 3.42 km. Of the communities compiled using FCM-NC and UPGMA, 50% consist of individual samples. Beyond undersampling, natural small-scale discontinuities are reflected by this result. Partial db-RDA resulted in an explained variation of 9.60% and 14.41% for environmental and soil factors, respectively. Utilising variation partitioning analyses based on CCA and tb-RDA, between 21.70% and 37.80% of the variation in vegetation data could be explained. The spatially structured fraction of these parameters accounts for between 30.50% and 49.80% of the explained variation (100%). The purely environmental parameters account for a share of 10.30% to 16.30%, whereby the lower limit originates from the unimodal approach and has lost its statistical significance. The soil variables, also after partial analysis, account for a share of 19.00% to 35.70%. While the residual impact of the climatic parameters is hardly significant, the effect of the soil properties is prevalent. In general, the spatially structured fraction of the parameters is predominant here. While on the broad-scale climatic factors, the altitude a.s.l. and the geology are determining factors, some soil parameters and matrix components also show their impacts here. In the mid-range of the scale, it is the forest matrix, the soil types, and the geology that determine species distribution. While in the fine range of the scale, some unrecorded parameters seem to have an effect, there are also neutral processes that determine species composition.
The protected areas of Rwanda are facing various challenges resulting from the anthropogenic activities of the surrounding communities especially in the adjacent area to Cyamudongo isolated rain forest, which results in climate change, soil degradation, and loss of biodiversity. Therefore, this study aims to broaden current knowledge on the impact of sustainable Agroforestry (AF) on the Carbon (C) stock and Biodiversity conservation on the surroundings of Cyamudongo isolated rain forest and Ruhande Arboretum.
To understand this, the permanent sample plots (PSPs) were established mainly in the designed four transects of four km long originating on the boundary of the Cyamudongo isolated rain forest following the slope gradient ranging from 1286 to 2015 m asl. A total number of 73 PSPs were established in the Cyamudongo study area while 3 PSPs were established in the Ruhande AF plot. The Arc Map GIS 10.4 was used to design and map the sampling areas while GPS was used for localization of collected items. Statistical significance was analyzed through the R-software especially for wood and soil variables while for biodiversity indicator species, MVSP Software 3.0 was used to determine the Shannon Diversity indices and similarities among species.
In this study, I have obtained comprehensive results demonstrating that in all study areas, the various AF tree species contribute differently to C stock and C sequestration and the amount of C stored and removed from the atmosphere depends on different factors such as tree species, plantation density, growth stage, or the age of establishment, applied management practices, wood specific density (WSD), wood C concentration, and climatic conditions. The estimated quantity of sequestrated C for 2 years and 34 years AF species were 13.11 t C ha -1 yr-1 (equivalent to 48 t CO2 ha -1 yr-1) and 6.85 t ha-1 yr-1 (equivalent to 25.1 t CO2 ha -1 yr-1) in Cyamudongo and Ruhande respectively. The estimated quantity of C stored by the Ruhande AF plot is 232.94 t ha-1. In Cyamudongo, the overall C stored by the AF systems was 823 t ha-1 by both young tree species established by the Cyamudongo Project (35.84 t ha-1) and C stored by existed AF species before the existence of the Project (787.12 t ha-1). In all study areas, the Grevillea robusta was found to contribute more to overall stored C compared to other species under this study.
The tests revealed differences in terms of nutrient contents (C, N, C: N ratio, K, Na, Ca, and Mg) for various AF tree species of Cyamudongo and Ruhande study areas. The differences in terms of correlation for various variables of AF tree species in different study areas varied with tree species, age, stage of growth, and tree shape. By comparing the correlation coefficients for various tree variables for young and mature AF tree species, the results showed a high correlation variability for young species than mature or old species recorded in different environmental conditions of Cyamudongo and Ruhande study areas.
The recorded soil pH mean value across in Cyamudongo study area is 4.2, which is very strongly acidic. The tests revealed that the soil pH, C, C: N ratio, OM, NH4+, NO3-+NO2-, PO43-, and CEC were significantly (P < 0.05) different in various soil depths whereas the N was not statistically significant. The pH, N, C: N ratio, CEC, NH4+, PO43-, and Al3+ showed a significant difference across land uses whereas the C and NO3-+NO2- did not show any statistical difference. All tested chemical elements showed a statistical difference as far as altitude ranges are concerned. The only NH4+, PO43-, and CEC showed significant differences with time whereas all other remaining chemical elements did not show any statistical significance. The bulk density of soil was statistically different across land uses and altitude ranges. The soil pH was very strongly correlated with CEC, Mg, and Ca in cropland (CL) whereas it was strongly correlated in both AF and natural forest (NF) except for Mg, which was moderately correlated in AF. Furthermore, its correlation with K was strong in CL, moderate in AF while it was weak in NF. Finally, the pH correlation with Na was weak in both AF and CL whereas it was negligible in NF. The overall estimated soil C stock of the study area was 16848 t ha -1.
The sustainable AF practices changed significantly the frequency of reptiles, amphibians, and flowering plants while there was no statistical change observed on ferns with time. In terms of species richness, 16 flowering plants, 14 ferns, 5 amphibians, and 3 reptiles were recorded and monitored. These findings add to a growing body of literature on the impact of AF on the C stock, soil improvement, and Biodiversity. It is recommended that further researches should be undertaken for the contribution of other AF tree species to the C stock found in the agricultural landscape around all protected areas of Rwanda and the impact on them on the soil and biodiversity.
Human population pressure increased with the population growth around the NNP and Cyamudongo with disturbance impacts on the forests isolating populations into fragments and today, Cyamudongo natural forest is located a way at a distance of at least 8.5 km horizontal distance to Nyungwe main block with a surface area estimated at 300 ha. Under Cyamudongo project implementation, there was a need to understand how the flora diversity responded to human imposed challenges and to forest restoration initiatives. Three physiognomic landscapes forest were identified and considered for three phases of vegetation survey in Cyamudongo and related to the closest area of Nyungwe main block. In this study, 15 transects were laid in each physiognomic forest landscape and 10 and 5 plots were set respectively in Cyamudongo and Gasumo study area. In total, 315 phytosociological relevés were performed and the Braun-Blanquet methods used for three times vegetation surveys. Species life-forms and chorophyte were evaluated and tree species dbh and height have been measured. Data were subjected to different statistical analyses using different softwares such as PAST, R 3.5.2, and SPSS. The mapping was done using Arc GIS and the Multi-Spectral Remote Sensing used to find NDVI for the vegetation classification.
NDVI trends showed that there has been fluctuations in vegetation classifications of the studied area. In this study, 494 vascular plant species from 106 families were harbored in the study area and distributed differently among forest landscapes and study phases. Although, 43.54% were common to Cyamudongo and Gasumo landscapes while 48.54 % of species diversity were hold only by Cyamudongo and 7.92% confined to Gasumo and 12 in total were found new records for Rwanda while several others suspected require detailed research for identification showing how the flora diversity of Cyamudongo is of special interest and extremely important for discoveries.
The finding of the study on diversity indices, the PCA, CA and the Cluster analysis, all statistical analyses (MANOVA, ANOVA) and life form spectra unanimously showed that the anthropogenic disturbance shaped the vegetation cover, the floristic composition, the species diversity, the forest landscapes community structure, the life form spectrum and the phytoclimate of Cyamudongo and Gasumo forest landscapes. Although, the vegetation analysis couldn’t clearly identify communities and sub-communities at the initial and final vegetation surveys and cluster groups were heterogeneous as well as overlapping and species associations not clearly defined due to the high level of similarities in species composition among forest landscapes and vegetation surveys. The species diversity was found high in secondary forest and Gasumo landscape forest and low in the primary forest and the buffer zone of Cyamudongo and the disturbance with gaps openings was found to be associated to the species diversity with a seasonal variation. The patterns of dbh for the buffer zone and of the size classes of all landscapes with an inverted ‘J’ indicated a healthy regeneration in the forest landscapes and tree species explained a good regeneration and recruitment capacity. Different shapes in the pattern of dbh with respectively an inverted ‘J’, ‘J ‘and ‘U’ for the buffer zone, primary and together the secondary and Gasumo forest landscapes indicated differences in the landscapes health and degree of regeneration and recruitment capacity.
Findings from differents measuements showed at which extend human activities have shaped the flora diversity and structure of forest landcapes studied. For instance, disturbances due human activities were daily oberved and trees were logged by neighboring communities such as Batwa populations at Cyamudongo and local populations at Gasumo. Some species were evenly observed targeted for their barks such as Ocotea usambarensis, Parinari excelsa for medicines and many others for their wood quality, fire wood collection and for agricultural purposes.
In the period of Cyamudongo project implementation, important achievements included the increase of forest biomass and therefore the photosynthetic capacity and the evapotranspiration potential that influence the rainfall regime; the regulation of weather conditions and then species diversity; supporting local communities and limiting human activities; raising awareness on conservation and protection of biodiversity and improving of living conditions of neighboring populations by providing paid employment and so to restore to the Cyamudongo forest ecosystem functions. Moreover, Cyamudongo forest remains vulnerable as surrounded by local communities with a high population pressure relying on forest resources for its survival. Cyamudongo harbors a high level of endemism and is a small hotspot for biodiversity conservation. It is therefore recommended to strengthen conservation and protection measures and continue the support of local communities.
Der Klimawandel stellt eine existenzielle Bedrohung für das menschliche Überleben, die soziale Organisation der Gesellschaft und die Stabilität der Ökosysteme dar. Er ist daher zutiefst beängstigend. Im Angesicht von Bedrohungen wollen sich Menschen häufig schützen, anstatt sich proaktiv zu verhalten. Wenn psychologische Ressourcen zur Bewältigung nicht ausreichen, reagieren Menschen oft mit verschiedenen Formen der Leugnung. Diese Dissertation leistet einen Beitrag zum Verständnis des vielschichtigen Phänomens der Klimawandelleugnung aus psychologischer Sicht.
Es gibt vier Forschungslücken in der Literatur zur Klimawandelleugnung: Erstens hat das Spektrum der Klimawandelleugnung als Selbst-schützende Reaktion auf die Klimakrise innerhalb der Psychologie bisher keine Beachtung gefunden. Zweitens wurde psychologische Grundbedürfnisbefriedigung, ein fundamentaler Indikator für menschliches Funktionieren und die Fähigkeit, mit Bedrohungen umzugehen, bisher nicht als Prädiktor für Klimawandelleugnung untersucht. Drittens sind Beziehungen des Spektrums der Klimawandelleugnung zu klimarelevanten Emotionen, insbesondere der Klimaangst, bisher nicht empirisch untersucht worden. Viertens wurde bisher nicht untersucht, wie sich das Spektrum der Klimawandelleugnung zu etablierten Prädiktoren der Klimawandelleugnung, d.h. rechtsideologischen Überzeugungen und männlichem Geschlecht, verhält. Um diese Lücken zu schließen, untersuche ich, wie sich das Spektrum der Klimawandelleugnung im deutschen Kontext manifestiert und wie es mit psychologischer Grundbedürfnisbefriedigung und -frustration, umweltfreundlichem Verhalten, Klimaangst, ideologischer Uberzeugung und Geschlecht zusammenhängt.
Fünf Manuskripte zeigen, dass Klimawandelleugnung im deutschen Kontext auf einem Spektrum existiert, das von der Verzerrung von Fakten (interpretative Leugnung, insbesondere Leugnung der persönlichen und globalen Folgenschwere) bis zur Leugnung von Implikationen reicht (implikatorische Leugnung, insbesondere Vermeidung, Leugnung von Schuld und Rationalisierung der eigenen Beteiligung). Über alle Analysen hinweg war niedrige psychologische Grundbedürfnisbefriedigung Prädiktor für das Spektrum der Klimawandelleugnung, das wiederum mit umweltfreundlichem Verhalten assoziiert war. Klimawandelleugnung stand generell in einem negativen Zusammenhang mit Klimaangst, mit Ausnahme einer positiven Assoziation von Vermeidung und Klimaangst. Rechtsideologische Überzeugung war der stärkste Prädiktor für Klimawandelleugnung über das gesamte Spektrum hinweg. Niedrige Bedürfnisbefriedigung und männliches Geschlecht waren weitere, aber schwächere Prädiktoren für implikatorische Leugnung.
Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass das Spektrum der Klimawandelleugnung viele psychologische Funktionen erfüllt. Klimawandelleugnung ist möglicherweise sowohl eine Selbst-schützende Strategie, um Emotionen herunter zu regulieren, als auch um sich vor dem Verlust von Privilegien zu schützen. Kurz gesagt stellt Klimawandelleugnung eine Barriere für Klimaschutzmaßnahmen dar, die möglicherweise erst dann überwunden wird, wenn Menschen über ausreichende psychologische Ressourcen verfügen, um sich der Bedrohung durch den Klimawandel zu stellen und mit zugrundeliegenden Selbst-schützenden, emotionalen Reaktionen umzugehen.